The Tuskegee Study Of Untreated Syphilis - 1579 Words

The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male: Research Ethics Tenzin Choeying Lehman College NUR 302 Ways of Knowing Nursing Research Faculty: Dr. Linda Scheetz 10/12/2016 In 1932, US public health service launched most shameful and hideous non-therapeutic experiment on human being in the medical history of the US. The practitioner on the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment promised free medical care to over hundreds of African American desperately poor sharecropper in Macon county, Alabama. This wicked study was designed, and documented the progression of syphilis in black man over a period of forty years, while the scientist has long claimed that the disease manifested itself differently in black than in whites, scientist decided to documented this by finding the pool of infected black men and withholding treatment from them, and charting the symptoms and disorder whiles these men suffered in pain eventually following into insanity and death of many patients. There were 600 black male subjects in the experiment and 399 black men who had syphilis were not treated and were experimenting to observe the effects of untreated syphilis ( Nieswiadomy 2012, P 19). By the end of this study, only 74 test subject were alive and 28 of the original 400 had died of syphilis and another 100 were dead from related complication and over 40 of them were infected and 19 of children were born with congenital syphilis. TheShow MoreRelatedThe Tuskegee Study Of Untreated Syphilis1285 Words   |  6 Pagesinitiated a study entitled the â€Å"Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male† in Macon County, Alabama to record the natural course of latent, untreated syphilis in Black males and explore treatment possibilities (Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2017). Macon County, Alabama, in which the town of Tuskegee is located, was selected as the location of this study because earlier studies conducted in the rural South by the USPHS to determine the prevalence of syphilis among BlacksRead MoreRacism and Research the Tuskegee Syphilis Study Essay1087 Words   |  5 PagesThe Case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study | | This essay examines the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, wherein for 40 years (1932-1972) hundreds of black men suffering from advanced syphilis were studied but not treated. The 40-year study was controversial for reasons related to ethical standards; primarily because researchers knowingly failed to treat patients appropriately after the 1940s validation of penicillin as an effective cure for the disease they were studying. To explore the role of the racismRead MoreThe Tuskegee Syphilis Study Is Still Alive1269 Words   |  6 PagesThe Tuskegee Syphilis Study is Still Alive Cells that live and multiply forever were harvested and cultured from a black woman named Henrietta Lacks. Many people made a profit off of her cells, and she nor her family knew anything about it. â€Å"Black scientists and technicians, many of them women, used cells from a black woman to help save the lives of millions of Americans, most of them white. And they did so on the same campus- and at the very same time- that state officials were conducting the infamousRead MoreRacism And Research : The Tuskegee Syphilis Study1294 Words   |  6 PagesRacism and Research: the Case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study In the article Racism and Research: the Case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, by Allen M. Brandt, he discusses a few mains point. The main points of the article is Racism and Medical Opinions, the origins of the experiment, how they selected the subjects, and the HEW final report. In the first point, Racism and Medical Opinions, many of the scientist believed that even with all the â€Å"education or philanthropy† the black Americans can’t beRead MoreTuskegee Syphilis Essay1565 Words   |  7 PagesThe Tuskegee syphilis study highlighted the effects of untreated syphilis in African American males by withholding syphilis treatment that was available to these men. In addition, Tuskegee syphilis study demonstrated how the participants’ rights were taken for granted or even minimized in order to obtain information on how the human body was affected by untreated syphilis. This study allows one to view how the ethical rights were violated and allows for guidelines to be established preventing futureRead MoreThe Tuskegee s Tuskegee Experiment986 Words   |  4 Pages The Tuskegee Experiment, is one of the most well known blunders of United States medical research in the 20th century. Not only was it entirely unethical and inhumane, but it also highlighted the problems of racism and inequality in the medical world and the entire country at that time. By examining and reviewing the history, consequences, racism, results, and conclusion of the Tuskegee Experiment, it can perhaps shed some light on the barbaric events that transpired throughout the research. AsRead MoreEssay on tuskegee syphilis study1502 Words   |  7 PagesThe Tuskegee Syphilis Study was an unethical prospective study based on the differences between white and black males that began in the 1930’s. This study involved the mistreatment of black males and their families in an experimental study of the effects of untreated syphilis. With very little knowledge of the study or the disease by participants, the Tuskegee Syphilis Study can be seen as one of the worst forms of injustices in the United States history. Even though one could argue that the studyRead MoreSyphilis And The Tuskegee Syphilis969 Words   |  4 PagesThe Tuskegee Syphilis Study of 1932 studied approximately six hundred twenty-five â€Å"disadvantaged rural black men† (Pozgar, 2016) that both had syphilis and did not have syphilis. This study, named Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013), was conducted by the Public Healt h Service from 1932 to 1972, however was only projected to last 6 months (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013). The purpose of the study was to showRead MoreEssay on The Ethic of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study738 Words   |  3 PagesRunning head: THE TUSKEGEE SYPHILIS STUDY The Tuskegee Syphilis Study Thomas Shaw Grand Canyon University PHL 305 7/25/2010 Introduction The Tuskegee Syphilis Study was developed to study the affects of Syphilis on adult black males. The intention of the study was to find ways to improve the quality of health in African Americans in the southern states. While the treatment phase of the program was beginning, America fell into the great depression and the benefactor, The Julius RosenwaldRead MoreThe Tuskegee Syphilis Study And The Stanford Prison Experiment883 Words   |  4 PagesThroughout the history of psychological studies unprincipled violations have constructed ethical standards that are essential in today’s research. These moral dilemmas created established professional and federal standards for performing research with human and animal participants, known as, psychological ethical codes. The Tuskegee syphilis study and the Stanford prison experiment highlighted a psychological study without proper patients’ consent and appropriate treatment, resulting in a research

Essay James Joyces Araby and Eveline - 1061 Words

James Joyces Araby and Eveline In Araby and Eveline Joyce uses religious symbols to show the importance of the Catholic religion in both of the main characters lives. Both of these stories take place in Dublin, Ireland, a place that is very strong in its belief in the Catholic religion. In Araby, the imagery of the infamous Fall is presented to the reader within the second paragraph to indicate its importance. The themes of religious masses can be found in Eveline. The concept of the Catholic Ash Wednesday is presented throughout both Araby and Eveline. The second paragraph of ?Araby? presents the idea of the Adam and Eve story known as ?The Fall.? ?The wild garden behind the house contained a central apple†¦show more content†¦In ?Eveline? images of religious masses come up in the story. ?Through the wide doors of the sheds she caught a glimpse of the black mass of the boat lying in beside the quay wall, with illumined portholes.? (32/45-47). The theme of religious masses is written into a very important time of the main character?s life. Eveline is faced with the decision whether or not to go with Frank to Buenos Aires. If she went, she would flee the responsibilities of her family and be able to finally live in a land where she could be carefree. Black mass is the traditional ceremony that witches will perform to invoke evil spirits and mock the mass of the Catholic Church. Since the theme of the black mass is used, it hints to the reader that maybe Eveline does not want to be held down by her religion. By using the words ?black? and ?mass? together, Joyce not only indicates the importance of Catholicism, but it shows the idea that Eveline is trying to break free from the constrictive power of the church and religion. Finally, the topic of Ash Wednesday is brought up in ?Araby? and ?Eveline.? Ash Wednesday is one of the most important days in the Catholic religion. It is the day of repentance in the Catholic Church, as well as the first day of lent. Lent is a time where a Catholic follower is deprived from one of the most important things in jhor life. Dust is always used toShow MoreRelated James Joyces Eveline and Araby Essay1622 Words   |  7 PagesJames Joyces Eveline and Araby James Joyce uses similar themes and language devices in both Araby and Eveline. Although this is so, there are also important differences to be noted. Joyce wrote these stories over one hundred years ago but yet we can still relate to the issues covered in the modern world today. James Joyce could have written these short stories as an inspiration from his own background or based them on the events happening in Dublin at thatRead MoreEveline1643 Words   |  7 PagesIn â€Å"Eveline,† James Joyce uses the juxtaposition of the ever-changing setting and the unchanging stoic character of Eveline in order to exemplify the character’s reluctance and inability to move forward. James Joyce is known for his juxtaposition of light and dark throughout his short stories, specifically in his story â€Å"Araby.† I would argue that Joyce is using the contrast of opposing forces described above between the setting and the character in a similar way as he was light and dark. â€Å"Araby†Read MoreAraby and James Joyce1207 Words   |  5 PagesThe short story â€Å"Araby† is clearly identifiable as the work of James Joyce. His vocalized ambition of acquainting fellow Irish natives with the true temperament of his homeland is apparent throughout the story. Joyce’s painstakingly precise writing style can be observed throughout â€Å"Araby† as well. Roman Catholicism, which played a heavy role in Joyce’s life, also does so in the story which is another aspect which makes Joyce’s authorship of the story unmistakable. As a result of Irish heritage displayedRead MoreA Similar Life Within A Story: Eveline by James Joyce1443 Words   |  6 Pagesindescribable. Many people live out their lives based off how that one person would want them to live. James Joyces short story, Eveline, is an example of how promises are hard to break. As James Joyce writes his stories, his characters and themes share similarities within his own life, giving them more value and much more meaning behind the importance of the story. To begin with, Eveline is the story of a young teenager facing a dilemma where she has to choose between living with her fatherRead MoreA Look At The Themes Of Home1742 Words   |  7 PagesJuan Linares Mr. Maust English IV AP 11 April 2016 The Wayfarers, A Look at the Themes of Home In James Joyce’s Dubliners In Dubliners, James Joyce explores the objective view of the paralysis that is a city. He believed strongly that Irish society had been paralyzed by two forces, both which he encountered throughout his life. One being England, and all of its social bewilderment, and the other being the Roman Catholic Church. As a result of this torpor the Irish experienced a downfall, economicallyRead MoreEssay on James Joyces Dubliners1145 Words   |  5 PagesJames Joyces Dubliners Throughout James Joyce’s â€Å"Dubliners† there are four major themes that are all very connected these are regret, realization, self hatred and Moral paralysis, witch is represented with the actual physical paralysis of Father Flynn in â€Å"The Sisters†. In this paper I intend to explore the different paths and contours of these themes in the four stories where I think they are most prevalent ,and which I most enjoyed â€Å"Araby†, â€Å"Eveline†, â€Å"The Boarding House†, and â€Å"A LittleRead MoreIn James Joyce’s the Dubliners, How Do the Characters’ Routines Impede Their Opportunities for Adventure and Excitement?1434 Words   |  6 PagesIn â€Å"Araby†, â€Å"Eveline†, and â€Å"The Dead†, three short stories featured in James Joyce’s The Dubliners, the characters struggle with whether to live their lives with a structured routine or to seek opportunities, change, and adventure. These shor t stories center around everyday life for citizens of Dublin, Ireland in the early 20th century, when a choice between continuing the inherited tradition of routine and structure versus seeking any other form of life or adventure could be the most important decisionRead MoreCommon Themes In A Little Cloud, By James Joyce1250 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"A Little Cloud† and was a common theme within Joyce’s short stories. He used his short stories as a medium to reach the hearts and minds of the people in Dublin, the place he called home. Although it was his home he didnt have the fondest memories of it which are clearly present in his writing. James Joyce was, in my opinion, a revolutionary who used his short stories as a means of changing the way of thinking for the homeland he resented. Joyce’s characters embark on a cyclical journey thatRead MoreEssay on Male and Female Paralysis in James Joyces Dubliners3585 Words   |  15 PagesMale and Female Paralysis in Dubliners Critics widely recognized that each story within James Joyce’s Dubliners contains a theme of paralysis. In fact, Joyce himself wrote, â€Å"My intention was to write a chapter of the moral history of my country and I chose Dublin for the scene because that city seemed to me the centre of paralysis† (Joyce, letter to Grant Richards, 5 May 1906). Contained in this moral history called Dubliners are twelve stories that deal with the paralysis of a central maleRead MoreMiss1743 Words   |  7 Pagesof 15 short stories by James Joyce, first published in 1914. The fifteen stories were meant to be a naturalistic depiction of the Irish middle class life in and around Dublin in the early years of the 20th century. The stories were written at the time when Irish nationalism was at its peak, and a search for a national identity and purpose was raging; at a crossroads of history and culture, Ireland was jolted by various converging ideas and influences. They centre on Joyces idea of an epiphany: a

Uniform Electronic Transactions Act

Question: Describe about the Uniform Electronic Transactions Act? Answer: The Uniform Law Commissioners enacted The Uniform Electronic Transactions Act (UETA) in 1999, for providing assistance in the preparation of the state laws during the period of electronic commerce. In regards to many electronic transactions, some states had already adopted laws and UETA is the "first national effort at providing some uniform rules to govern transactions in e-commerce that should serve in every state." About the Uniform Commercial Code, the first national effort has been primarily represented by UETA. Except Articles 2 and 2A, the UETA rules cannot be subjected to any other article of the Uniform Commercial Code and are mainly for "electronic records and electronic signatures relating to a transaction." The word transaction' in brief gives an example of buying or selling something that involves an exchange or interaction between people. The required notices, disclosures or communications as per the requirement of the courts and the government agencies are not included in the given definition, and hence, this definition excludes many meanings. On June 30, 2000, President Clinton signed The Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act into law. With several other states pending the given act, only nineteen states enacted the UETA at that time. As this Act overlaps significantly with UETA, it has been mentioned by the given context. The signatures can neither be enforced for being electronic nor can be denied for legal effect as each of the statutes has provided electronic contracts. Transactions secured by real property have been provided with electronic paper negotiable notes by E-sign. Under the Articles 3 and 7 of the UCC, UETA applies to all documents including the promissory notes, which emphasizes on the broader scope of the UETA and thus the significance of using electronic records and signatures in the field of commerce have been thoroughly justified. UETA is applied depending upon the agreement of the party for conducting the transactions electronically. However, the electronic transactions are not mandatory, but an agreement is essential while performing such operations. Regarding the different agreement, the given transactions may differ, retain or refuse some of the provisions provided by the UETA. Even if it is agreed to transact the business by electronic means, some of the different provisions of UETA may differ, waive or disclaim by this transaction regarding the agreement. In the case of the terms of an agreement associated with a given event, the default rules in UETA are applicable under such circumstances. The primary intention of electronic commerce is to associate business by using a computer or telephone. Keeping aside the limitation, boundaries, and developments, the Internet is serving as one of the biggest places regarding the electronic market transaction and has developed operations with the establishment of its activity to help any other electronic marketplace, which might have the ability or possibility to develop in the future. With the reasonable certainty in 1999, which continues to be reasonably sure in the future, there are only certain assumptions of the law, which governs transactions, and regarding the obtainable electronic marketplace, microscopic information has been gained. Electronic transactions help in the conduction of electronic transactions conducts communication of digitized information from one person to another. The fundamental speech of electronic communication is fully and permanently paperless since the digitized information can be easily communicated and stored without the use of paper. By the fact, relying on paper for memorization of transactions and upon manual signatures to verify them hinders the use of such operations, owing to the cost. There is no actual benefit to any party in connection with an electronic deal with few exceptions, which needs to have accurate documentation with physical signature. One fascination that is rationally sure with admiration to electronic dealings is associated with increasing the supplies for writings and personal name in law. Electric minutes and signature can only suit such necessities. The principal purpose of UETA is to ensure that dealings in the electronic marketplace are as enforceable as dealings memorialized on paper and with physical signatures, without altering any of the substantive rules of law that relate and thereby UETA do not effort to create a whole new system of official rules for the electronic marketplace. This is an incomplete object that serves the particular purposethat an electronic record of a contract is the corresponding of a paper confirmation, and that an electronic signature will be given the identical legal effect, whatever that might be, as a physical signature. The key policy of UETA are mentioned in Section 7 of UETA and the most fundamental rule under Section 7 states that that an "evidence or name may not be without legal consequence or enforceability solely because it is in electronic form." The second key rule states, "A contract may not be starved of legal effect or enforceability exclusively because electronic evidence was used in its configuration." The third primary rule states that an electronic record will satisfy any law that requires writing, and finally the fourth basic rule provides that any signature obligation in the law will be met if there is an electronic signature. The fundamental principles of Section 7 have been served by all the other rules in UETA, which tends to respond basic constitutional questions about the use of electronic proceedings and signature. Thus, Section 15 of UETA plays vital role informative information, which is legally sent or delivered in electronic form. It establishes when an electronic proof capable of retention by the recipient is legally sent and received, during which the electronic delivery occurs. The customary and constitutional policy cannot be applied to electronic transactions that rule mail delivery of the paper memorializing a business. Under such circumstances, UETA provides the devised precise control. The state of attribution in Section 9 is a different state, which supports the general soundness of electronic minutes and signatures in dealings. Electronic transactions are mostly faceless transactions between strangers. UETA states that a signature is attributable to a person if it is an act of an individual, which can be shown in any manner and case if a sanctuary process is used, its efficacy in establishing the attribution may be shown. The obvious difficulties of identification and attribution need to be conquered in the faceless surroundings of electronic transactions, and Section 9 gives guidance in that endeavor. In regards to electronic commerce, much has been written about digital signatures, which is a method of encryption that utilizes particular technology in e-commerce. Such techniques are highly helpful and useful in the faceless surroundings of the electronic marketplace, chiefly the Internet. The legal influences for these technologies are not entirely certain until now and for this reason, UETA may not be characterized as a digital signature statute. It does ease the employ of digital signature and other security events in rules mentioned in Section 9 on attribution. In case if there is an argument over the satisfied of the message, the rules on errors and changes in words specified under section 10 favors the meeting who conforms to the safety procedure used in the particular business against the gathering who does not. UETA is technically neutral and hence nothing in UETA requires the use of digital cross or any other type of safety procedure. Thereby, an entity can also use the most up-to-date digital signature skill or the less various security events such as passwords or pin statistics. In the case of any argument these dealings can be used for ascription or assure message truthfulness as confirmation. The UETA being non-substantive and technical do not forbid the use of paper minutes and physical signatures and thereby states that it is not necessary for everyone to use electronic dealings or to rely on electronic records and signatures. The general and legal law of contracts, categorize under the basic rules of law continue to apply as they have always been practical. There are three supplies in UETA, which require special concentration because these necessities are not straight in support of the fundamental rules in Section 7. First, contact subjected to the Uniform Commercial Code has been excluded by the UETA except those mentioned under Articles 2 and 2A. For example, the Uniform Computer Information Transactions Act, laws leading estates and trust, and any other strict laws that a state wants to excuse from the rules functional in UETA. Some writing and signature necessities in state commandment do not affect the enforceability of dealings and have objectives, which will not be pretentious by the implementation of a decree like UETA. The command of UETA to the resolute electronic business will eradicate any disagreement rising with other writing supplies. However, to assure no conflict, there is some room for jurisdiction-specific tailoring of UETA that has been permitted in each state with exclusions carefully and conservatively selected. If electronic records and signatures are recognized, most of the law relating to contracts and transactions between persons will serve the public better. In section 16, the UETA provide for "transportable proceedings". When in electronic form, comments and papers on Article 3 and 7 of the Uniform Commercial Code are "transferable records". Both explanation and diploma are considered as negotiable instruments. As the single, unique token of the duty and rights embodied in the note or text, the cooperation excellence relies chiefly on the text or note. Maintaining such quality serves as a unique token for electronic records under the subject of Section 16. The existence of a transferable record occurs depending upon the continuation of single exact copy, which is unalterable in the "control" of a person. To serve the purposes of transferring the record under the consistently good code, a person in "control" is considered as a "holder." Section 16 supplements to the Uniform Commercial Code until the articles are thoroughly revised or amended for accommodating electronic instruments. The contract associated with electronic agents is validated by the UETA. Electronic agents refer to computer programs related to doing business in electronic form. These electronic agents operate mechanically, without instant human management, though the electronic agents are not self-directed agents, these work automatically with any immediate human control and are a kind of tool, which are used to converse. Section 14 allows a person to form a contract by utilizing an electronic agent, which states that the individual or entity, provide the program to do commerce, is bound by the agent's contract. Even though a computer that solicits payment in sequence and orders automatically conducts the transaction, the validity of the agreement will be assured when a person buys something on the internet. The electronic records dealt created and retained by the state government is dealt by three sections of UETA. Description of one agency or officer as the authority on creation and retention of official records is chiefly allowed by Section 17. Chapter 18 helps in designating a civilization or officer for regulating the communication of electronic documents and use of electronic signatures between individuals and agencies. To designate an agency or officer for the setting of standards to promote consistency and interoperability among state agencies have been primarily looking after by Section 19. The mentioned sections are not mandatory for all states in implementing uniformity and are optional for the states, which needs them. In the context of organizing electronic business of a country , these are critical provisions and should be given far-reaching consideration in every state. Thus, the present summary highlights some of the important aspects of the UETA and provides knowledge regarding the benefits of adopting these rules for improving and increasing the business of electronic commerce Bibliography Admin (2011, June 23). UETA-Uniform Electronic Transactions Act. Retrieved from https://electronicsignature.com/ueta-uniform-electronic-transactions-act/ Brumfield Fry, P. (2015). Why Enact UETA? The Role of UETA After E-Sign. Retrieved from https://www.uniformlaws.org/Shared/Docs/Why.aspx/ ESIGN Act UETA/Docusign (2015). ESIGN Act UETA Retrieved from https://www.docusign.com/esign-act-and-ueta/ The National Conference of Commission on UniformState Laws (2015). Electronic Transactions Act Summary. Retrieved from https://www.uniformlaws.org/ActSummary.aspx/

The American Governments Use of Media to Influence People free essay sample

A paper which shows how the federal government has used the media to sway public opinion and influence choices. A paper which shows that, by calling it propaganda in the form of patriotism, the American government has been successful in influencing its people on many matters, both politically and socially, with the use of media. The paper uses Americas change in its isolationist policy during WWI as an example. It also shows how the movie industry was used to influence the public. `But the films were even more effective. It wasnt necessarily that movies like Americas Answer a documentary in 1918 about the sending of the first 500,000 American troops to France were great art. The were professionally made, certainly, but their power to persuade Americans in the importance of U.S. engagement in Europe relied not on artistry per se but on each films possessing a simple, clear message. We will write a custom essay sample on The American Governments Use of Media to Influence People or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The force of this repeated, focused message (a hallmark of effective propaganda in all media) combined with the immediacy of film won over many Americans who ` had they simply been reading about the war in the newspaper ` might well have remained convinced that isolationism was the best policy.`

Political economy of agrarian change The WritePass Journal

Political economy of agrarian change Introduction Political economy of agrarian change IntroductionAre redistributive land reforms possible and if so are they desirable today?BibliographyRelated Introduction Are redistributive land reforms possible and if so are they desirable today? Land reform (LR) is defined as a ‘legislation intended and likely to redistribute ownership of current farmland, and thus benefit the poor by raising their absolute and relative status, power, and/or income, compared with likely situations without the legislation’ (Lipton, 2009:124). Thus, land-based wealth and power are transferred from the monopoly control of private landed class to landless working poor. This, however, is far from being universal. LR has had a rollercoaster ride in the toolbox of development strategies from a panacea that would cure all ills and help replicate the successes of Japan and Korea, to venom that destroys property rights and creates unviable production units that lead to agricultural decline and urban migration as it has purportedly done in Latin America. The issue of LR is indeed complex and nuanced. A deeper understanding of LR, therefore, is imperative. This essay discusses the desirability and possibility of LR. On one spectrum, it will argue for the desirability of land reform in terms of efficiency and poverty reduction. On the other spectrum, it will venture arguments for the possibility of LR. It concludes that LR remains alive, active and acts as a beacon of hope for those with limited or no access to land. This essay begins assessing the possibility of LR in contemporary developing countries. It argues that LR is not only possible but an ongoing battle. It is back on the policy agenda of international development institutions since the 1990s and has not disappeared since then (Borras, 2010). It was in the mid-1990s when land struggles caught the attention of the world. Three of these were the most important, the Chiapas uprising in Mexico, the state-investigated land invasions by black landless poor of white commercial farms in Zimbabwe, and the resurgence of militant peasant land occupations in Brazil reminiscent of the actions by the peasant land of the 1950s but much greater in scale and political sophistication (Akram-Lodhi et al, 2007). While the international development community grappled with the meanings and implications of such complex conflicts, trans-national agrarian movements (TAMs) emerged (Borras, 2010).   La Via Campesina (VC) is to be mentioned, beside the Internati onal Federation of Agricultural Producers and the IPC for Food Sovereignty. VC, for example, is an international movement of poor peasants and small farmers from the global South and North, which was established in 1993 as a critical response to neoliberalism and which is still very much active today (Ibid, 2010). VC validates what Ronald Herring (2003) observed, namely that LR was taken off the ‘policy agenda’ of national and international agencies in the 1980s, but never left the ‘political agendas’ of the peasants and their organisations. Herring explained that ‘even dead LR are not dead; they become nodes around which future peasant mobilisations emerge because promises unkept keep movements alive’ (Ibid, 2003: 123). Today, as in the case 50 years ago, severe poverty remains mainly rural with extreme land inequalities. As the World Bank study in 2003 shows 17.8% of the population in East and South East Asia live under 1.25$. The figure however is much higher for Latin America (38.6%) and drastic in Sub-Saharan Africa (50.3%). Further, though the LR thrust weakened from the mid-1970s, observers (de Janvry and Sadoulet,1989) saw factors tending to revive it. First, form the mid-1980s, spreading democracy and political organisation led to civil-society activism, including land invasions to press for enforcement of unimplemented LR laws (Binswanger-Mkhize, 2009). Second, growth of new markets induced many giant, near-feudal haciendas to become commercial farms; turned tied workers from feudal workers into casual, part-time employees, who are freer to press for LR (Bernstein, 2003). Third, in faster-growing countries, urban growth shifted visible poverty priorities at national levels from farms towards cities (Lipton, 2009). Thus, internal dynamics – urbanisation, unequal land and power distribution, and the expansion of democratic-consciousness among the rural population supported, rather than kill, LR in twenty-first century. Since the Mexican revolution of 1910, internal dynamics decide whether LR slows, pauses, resumes or accelerates. Sometimes it was seen as complete, either having reached its limits or succumbed to limitations, mainly underperformance and unpopularity due to collectivist rather than distributives approaches (Olsen, 1971). But in no country did LR quite die or became impossible rather it has resumed or speeded up. Indeed in some countries LR sputtered on with many stops and starts. The timing of slowdowns or reversals varied, from 1910 in Mexico or 1973 in Chile. The timing of resumption or acceleration also varied, from the early 1990s in Brazil to 2006-08 in Bolivia and Venezuela (Sen, 1997). Many huge farms have partly transformed from haciendas to partly modernised commercial farms but gross, growth-inhibiting, and largely inherited land inequality remains unaddressed – making LR vital and crucial as ever. LR, therefore, is not impossible. Much had happened; some is happening now; more remains relevant and likely. Globally, LR recedes and advances, is fulfilled or abandoned, inspires new pressures and programmes or becomes dormant with old ones. Since LR is still not only possible today but also a burning issue, the question now is whether it is also desirable. Opponents of LR, for example, Lipton (2008) argue that with increased expansion of capitalism, large farms become more suitable than small farms – rendering LR superfluous. Worldwide, rapid technical change and globalisation confront farmers with transformed processing and marketing arrangements, often impinging on production. Larger farms are considered under these circumstances as more efficient, thus advantages of smallness are reversed by economic development, globalisation and supermarkets. Moreover, it is argued that LR is internally inconsistent often due to loopholes inserted by lawmakers under pressure from large landowners (Ibid, 2008). LR, so argued, gives ‘too’ much power to the state so that the goal of putting control of land in the hands of the poor is subverted, and the reform abused to extract enforced surplus from rural people, in cluding the poor. Also argued is that LR is politically infeasible because political and social costs of implementation far exceeds benefits of reform (Rashid and Quibria, 1995). Yet, all these arguments considered are as amiss. There are two different discourses arguing in favour of LR. The one is Marxist, positivist, evolutionist, the other, neo-liberal and technocratic (Borras et al, 2010). The one has developed in Eastern and Central Europe during the late nineteenth century; the other after World War II in the technocratic language of development policy. Both traditions have resonances in today’s LR debate, however with competing political ideologies, reasoning, and conclusions. While it must be acknowledged that the debate about LR also includes institutional economics or livelihood economics, a further inquiry thereof is beyond the scope of this essay (Cousins et al., 2010). The main neo-liberal argument for LR lies in the inverse-relationship paradigm (IR) (Deiniger, 1999). The rationale is that small scale farmers are residual claimants to profits and have an incentive to provide greater efforts in the process of production. The reason for this is the following: small farms have advantages in managing labour, but larger farms in managing capital. Capital and large-farm advantage loom larger as a source of higher land productivity in developed, labour scarce rural areas; labour, and small-farm advantage, count for more in developing, capital scarce countries. Griffin, Khan and Ickowitz (2002) conclude that since the ratio of interest rates to wages is relatively low in large farms with access to credit, they tend to adopt relatively more capital intensive method of production. Small farmers on the other hand, so argued, tend to have worse access to capital and therefore tend to economize on it by adopting relatively more labour intensive technology. Sma ll farmers, therefore, generate more employment. Since the factor proportions are typically skewed in favour of labour as the abundant, small farms utilize resources more efficiently. Following this line of reasoning, there appears to be a clear policy outcome; economic policies should be geared towards reallocating land away from large farm holdings to small family farms since it is the most effective means of boosting efficiency and output. The desirability of LR based on IR, however, is disputable. Today, it is assumed that the connection between size and productivity is fallacious – even among neo-liberal economists. While the World Bank supported the IR in 1975, it now claims that ‘land ownership ceiling have been generally ineffective†¦to facilitate the break-up of big farms, and instead have led to red tapes, spurious subdivisions, and corruption’ (Binswanger-Mkhize, 2009). To argue further, IR paradigm suffers from methodological shortcomings semantic relativism. What is a ‘small’ farm? There is no general consensus on this and it varies with each case study on IR. For example, Van Zyl (1996) conducted a study into South African agriculture in which he stated that, ‘significant efficiency gains can be made if farm sizes in the commercial sector become smaller (in Sender and Johnston, 2004:152). However, the definition of a ‘small farm’ used in this study wa s one with over 500 hectares. To argue that a 500 hectare farm is a ‘small’ scale farm is preposterous when compared to a small farm in Bangladesh which normally counts for 1-2 hectare (Khan, 2004). The term ‘small’ is used ambiguously in many investigations into agriculture and productivity. Therefore, until there is a clear definition of what constitutes a ‘small’ farm, it is difficult to accept evidence about higher productivity on ‘small’ farms without a pinch of salt. Second, IR suffers from theoretical limitations. IR ignores peasant differentiation and differences in land quality (Byres, 2004b). Small peasants are not heterogeneous. In each size group, some farms are run and worked by kin, others by employees; some are remote, others peri-urban; some have favourable land, others not, some are well-managed, others not. Simple measures, which regress annual farm output per hectare against farm size, miss out these factors. In statistics term, the ‘bivariate’ IR hides ‘missing variables’, and thus hides ‘unobserved heterogeneity’ within farm size-groups (Dyer, 2004). Moreover, smaller farms may have higher output per hectare, not because of its smallness, but because of its higher land-water quality (Ibid, 2004). Small farm land with poor soil quality can not be a guarantee for higher agricultural output. The desirability of LR from a Marxist perspective, however takes a different stance. According to political economists, LR’s desirability lies in its contribution to the resolution of the agrarian question (AQ). The AQ constitutes the continued existence in the countryside, in a substantive sense, of obstacles to an unleashing of accumulation in both the countryside itself and more generally - in particular, the accumulation associated with capitalist industrialisation (Byres, 2004a).Byres’ definition demonstrates the historical contribution of LR to develop capitalist economies. It was LR that unleashed the forces of production necessary for a ‘primitive accumulation’ by eroding feudal and semi-feudal relations of production and replacing them with a class of capitalist farmers and one of wage labourers. The resolution of the AQ was achieved in a variety of ways, ‘from above’, as in the case of nineteenth century Prussia, where a land owning class metamorphosed into an agrarian capitalist class, or ‘from below’ in America, where peasants differentiate themselves over time into classes of agrarian capital (Ibid, 2004a). To destroy the power of pre-capitalist property class, LR is required. The function of LR in this context, therefore, lies in its contribution as the promoter of capitalism in pre-capitalist areas. Contemporary AQ, however, is centred on the crisis of the reproduction of increasingly fragmented classes of labour within a capitalist system (Bernstein, 2009). Here, the desirability of LR is argued on the basis of securing the livelihood of peasants. Land is seen as ‘a basic livelihood asset, the principal form of natural capital from which people produce food and earn a living’ (Cousins et al 2010:32). Land also ‘provides a supplementary source of livelihoods for rural workers and the urban poor’ and ‘as a heritable asset, land is the basis for the wealth and livelihood security of future rural generations’ (Ibid, 2010:33). Moreover, Kay (1988) buttresses LR by arguing that small-scale farming is multiplier-rich. LR enhances growth for the overall economy because family farmers spend more of their incomes in the locally produced goods than do larger farms, creating a positive relationship between family farms and non-farm incomes in the loca l economy. In China, for instance, access to land enabled peasants to take increased risk and move into non-farm activities which produced the boom in small-scale entrepreneurship (Bramall, 2004). From a Marxist perspective henceforth, desirability of LR not only results in capital accumulation but in improved prospects for the livelihood security of differentiated classes of labour, for whom farming may be only one source of income. So far we have considered the desirability of LR entirely from an economic perspective. Leaving this aside, LR has also major socio-political implications – buttressing the desirability argument. Advocates of political LR, appreciate, for instance, the dissolution of feudal relationships of production and excessively concentrated and exploitative à ©lite power structures (Bhaduri, 1973). While the main goal of land reformers is to enhance the rural poor’s access to land, it is also to reduce poverty, inequality, and to increase liberty (Sen, 2001). Having land on their own, the poor rely less on non-farm employment, emergency loans, or trade with local ‘rural tyrants’ (Hall, 2004) who are almost always major land controllers, but often also employers, landlords, lenders with interlocking market power over things that the local poor can neither live without nor, in many cases readily get elsewhere. Political LR, also include the creation of political stabil ity and peace. In post-conflict situations, this would suggest a focus on provision of land to war-veterans and people displaced by war. In Zimbabwe, for instance, LR focused on white-owned farms and exempted black owners from expropriation (Jacobs, 2000). In post-colonial situations, the political LR also included correcting the racial imbalance in land ownership (Algeria, East-Southern Africa) and empowering members of the new elite (Kenya and Zimbabwe) (Lipton, 2004). Therefore LR, apart from having economic benefits, contributes to unlock many of today’s rural societies from quasi-feudalism. LR – its desirability and possibility – has been hotly debated among various economic ideologies. Yet, in a world of continuing poverty and inequality, slow agricultural growth, changing economic structures, rapid urbanisation, profound challenges of climate structures, and rapid urbanisation, institutions, policies and pressures concerning access to and use of land are as important as ever. In the past century, LR played a central role in the time-paths of rural and national poverty, progress, freedom, conflict, and suffering. Arguing that LR is ‘passà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢- is therefore erroneous. And such thinking underrates the reach of LR. LR, like education or tax reform, is a thrust towards more equitable and efficient distribution. The thrust weakens or strengthens with economic situations and power balances, but does not become impossible. For the next half-century at least, where agriculture continues central to the lives of the poor, the role of LR will not declin e. Indeed growing populations, scarcer land, and the low and falling employment intensity of non-farm growth may well increase pressures for and resistance to LR. Although, it carries the potential for severe land conflicts, it nevertheless permits huge gains, in terms of liberty and peace as well as growth and reduced inequality. Bibliography Akram-Lodhi, A.H., Borras, M. Jr, Kay,C., and McKinley, T. (2007), Land, poverty and livelihoods in an era of globalization.London: Routledge. Bernstein, H. (2009), ‘Agrarian questions from transition to globalization’, in A Haroon Akram Lodhi and C Kay (eds), Peasants and Globalization. Political economy, rural transformation and the agrarian question, London: Routledge. Bernstein, H. (2003), ‘Land Reform in Southern Africa in World-Historical Perspective’, Review of African Political Economy, vol.30, no.96. Bhaduri, A. (1973), ‘A study in economic backwardness under semi-feudalism’. Economic Journal vol.5, no.83. Binswanger-Mkhize, H. P (2009), Agricultural Land Redistribution. Towards a Greater Consensus. Washington, D.C: World Bank. Bloch, M. (1964), Feudal Society: The growth of ties of dependence. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Borras, S., Kay C., and Lahiff E. (2007), ‘Market-Led Agrarian Reform: Policies, Performance and Prospects’, Third World Quarterly, vol.28, no.8. Borras, S., and Franco, J. (2010), ‘Contemporary Discourses and Contestations around Pro-poor Land Policies and Land Governance’, Journal of Agrarian Change, vol. 10, no.1. Borras, S. (2010), ‘The Politics of Transnational Agrarian Movements’, Development and Change, vol. 41, no.5. Bramall, C. (2004), ‘Chinese Land Reform in Long-Run Perspective and in the Wider East Asian Context’, Journal of Agrarian Change, vol.4, no 12. Byres, T.J. (2004a), ‘Neo-Classical Neo-populism 25 Years On: Dà ©j vu and Dà ©j Passà ©. Towards a Critique ’, Journal of Agrarian Change, vol. 4, no.12. Byres, T.J. (2004b), ‘Introduction: Contextualizing and Interrogating the GKI Case for Redistributive Land Reform’, Journal of Agrarian Change, vol. 4, no 12. Chimhowu, A. and Woodhouse, A. (2006), ‘Customary vs. Private Property Rights? Dynamics and Trajectories of Vernacular Land Markets in Sub-Saharan Africa’, Journal of Agrarian Change, vol.6, no.3. Cousins, B. and Scoones I. (2010), ‘Contested paradigms of ‘viability’ in redistributive land reform: perspectives from Southern Africa’. Journalof Peasant Studies, vol. 37, no. 1. Deininger, K. (1999), ‘Making Negotiated Land Reform Work: Initial Experience from Columbia, Brazil and South Africa’, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper, Washington D.C: World Bank. Deininger, K. (2003), Land Policies for Growth and Poverty Reduction. Washington, D.C: World Bank. Dyer, G. (2004), ‘Redistributive Land Reform: No April Rose.   The Poverty of Berry and Cline and GKI on the Inverse Relationship’, Journal of Agrarian Change, vol.4., no12. De Janvry, A. and Sadoulet, E. (1989), ‘Path dependent policy reforms: from land reform to rural development in Columbia’, in Hoff et al., 2003, the Economics of Rural organisation: Theory, practise, and Policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Griffin, K., Khan, R., and Ickowitz, A.(2002), ‘Poverty and the Distribution of Land’, Journal of Agrarian Change, vol. 2, no.3 Griffin, K., Khan, A.R., and Ickowitz, A. (2004), ‘In Defence of Neo-Classical Neo-Populism’, Journal of Agrarian Change, vol. 4, no 3. Hall, R. (2004), ‘A Political Economy of Land Reform in South Africa’, Review of African Political Economy, vol.100, Herring, R. (2003) Carrots, Sticks and Ethnic Conflict: Rethinking Development Assistance. Michigan: University of Michigan Press. Jacobs, S. (2000), ‘Zimbabwe: Why Land Reform is a Gender Issue’, Sociological Research Online, vol. 5, no.2. Johnston, D. and Le Roux, H. (2007), ‘Leaving the Household out of Family Labour: The Implications for the Size-Efficiency Debate’, European Journal of Development Research. Kay, C. (1998), ‘Latin Americas agrarian reform: lights and shadows’. Land reform, Land Settlement and Co-operatives, vol.2, no.7. Kevane, M. and Gray, L.C. (1999), ‘A Womans Field is Made at Night: Gendered Land Rights and Norms in Burkina Faso’, Feminist Economics, vol. 5, no.1. Khan, M.H. (2004), ‘Power, Property Rights and the Issue of Land Reform: A General Case Illustrated with Reference to Bangladesh’, Journal of Agrarian Change, vol.4, no 12. Lipton M. (2009), Land Reform in Developing Countries. Property rights and property wrongs. London: Routledge. Manji, A. (2003), ‘Capital, Labour and Land Relations in Africa: A Gender Analysis of the World Banks Policy Research Report on Land Institutions and Land Policy’, Third World Quarterly, vol. 24, no.1. Olsen, M. (1971), The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Peters, P. (2004), ‘Inequality and Social Conflict Over Land in Africa’, Journal of Agrarian Change, vol.4, no.3. Rashid, S. and Quibria, M. (1995), Critical Issues in Asia Development: Theories, Experiences and Policies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Schultz, T. (1964) Transforming Traditional Agriculture. New Haven: Yale University Press. Sen, A. K. (1997), ‘Radical Needs and Moderate Reforms’, in J. Dreze and A.K Sen (eds), Indian Development: Selected Regional Perspectives, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sen, A. K. (2001), Development as Freedom. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sender, J. and Johnston, D. (2004), ‘Searching for a Weapon of Mass Production in Rural Africa: Unconvincing Arguments for Land Reform’, Journal of Agrarian Change, vol. 4, no.12. Vergera-Camus, L. (2009), ‘The MST and the EZLN struggle for land: new forms of peasant rebellions’, Journal of Agrarian Change, vol. 9, no.3. Walker, C. (2002). ‘Agrarian Change, Gender And Land Reform: A South African Case Study’, UNRISD Social Policy Development Programme, Paper no 10. Woodhouse, P. (2003), ‘African Enclosures: A Default Mode of Development’, World Development vol.31, no.10.

Douglas SBD Dauntless Divebomber in World War II

Douglas SBD Dauntless Divebomber in World War II The Douglas SBD Dauntless was the mainstay of the US Navys dive bomber fleet for much of World War II (1939-1945). Produced between 1940 and 1944, the aircraft was adored by its flight crews which praised its ruggedness, dive performance, maneuverability, and heavy armament. Flown from both carriers and land bases, the Slow but Deadly Dauntless played key roles at the decisive Battle of Midway and during the campaign to capture Guadalcanal. Also an excellent scout aircraft, the Dauntless remained in frontline use until 1944 when most US Navy squadrons began transitioning to the more powerful, but less popular Curtiss SB2C Helldiver.      Design Development: Following the US Navys introduction of the Northrop BT-1 dive bomber in 1938, designers at Douglas began working on an improved version of the aircraft. Using the BT-1 as a template, the Douglas team, led by designer Ed Heinemann, produced a prototype which was dubbed the XBT-2. Centered on the 1,000 hp Wright Cyclone engine, the new aircraft featured a 2,250 lb. bomb load and a speed of 255 mph. Two forward firing .30 cal. machine guns and one rear-facing .30 cal. were provided for defense.   Featuring all metal construction (except for fabric covered control surfaces), the XBT-2 utilized a low-wing cantilever configuration and included  hydraulically actuated, perforated split dive-brakes. Another change from the BT-1 saw the landing gear shift from retracting backwards to closing laterally into recessed wheel wells in the wing. Re-designated the SBD (Scout Bomber Douglas) following Douglas purchase of Northrop, the Dauntless was selected by the US Navy and Marine Corps to replace their existing dive bomber fleets. Production and Variants: In April 1939, the first orders were placed with the USMC opting for the SBD-1 and the Navy selecting the SBD-2. While similar, the SBD-2 possessed a greater fuel capacity and a slightly different armament. The first generation of Dauntlesses reached operational units in late 1940 and early 1941. As the sea services were transitioning to the SBD, the US Army placed an order for the aircraft in 1941, designating it the A-24 Banshee. In March 1941, the Navy took possession of the improved SBD-3 which featured self-sealing fuel tanks, enhanced armor protection, and an expanded array of weapons including an upgrade to two forward-firing .50 cal. machine guns in the cowling and twin .30 cal. machine guns on a flexible mount for the rear gunner. The SBD-3 also saw a switch to the more powerful Wright R-1820-52 engine. Subsequent variants included the SBD-4, with an enhanced 24-volt electrical system, and the definitive SBD-5. The most produced of all SBD types, the SBD-5 was powered by a 1,200 hp R-1820-60 engine and had a larger ammunition capacity than its predecessors. Over 2,900 SBD-5s were built, mostly at Douglas Tulsa, OK plant. A SBD-6 was designed, but it was not produced in large numbers (450 total) as Dauntless production was ended in 1944, in favor of the new Curtiss SB2C Helldiver. A total of 5,936 SBDs were built during its production run. Specifications (SBD-5) General Length: 33 ft. 1 in.Wingspan: 41 ft. 6 in.Height: 13 ft. 7 in.Wing Area: 325 sq. ft.Empty Weight: 6,404 lbs.Loaded Weight: 10,676 lbs.Crew: 2 Performance Power Plant: 1 Ãâ€" Wright R-1820-60 radial engine, 1,200 hpRange: 773 milesMax Speed: 255 mphCeiling: 25,530 ft. Armament Guns: 2 x .50 cal. machine guns (mounted in cowling), 1 x (later 2 x) flexible-mounted .30 cal. machine gun(s) in rearBombs/Rockets: 2,250 lbs. of bombs Operational History The backbone of the US Navys dive bomber fleet at the outbreak of World War II, the SBD Dauntless saw immediate action around the Pacific. Flying from American carriers, SBDs aided in sinking the Japanese carrier Shoho at the Battle of the Coral Sea (May 4-8, 1942). A month later, the Dauntless proved vital in turning the tide of the war at the Battle of Midway (June 4-7, 1942). Launching from the carriers USS Yorktown (CV-5), USS Enterprise (CV-6), and USS Hornet (CV-8), SBDs successfully attacked and sank four Japanese carriers. The aircraft next saw service during the battles for Guadalcanal. Flying from carriers and Guadalcanals Henderson Field, SBDs provided support for the Marines on the island as well as flew strike missions against the Imperial Japanese Navy.  Though slow by the standards of the day, the SBD proved a rugged aircraft and was beloved by its pilots. Due to its relatively heavy armament for a dive bomber (2 forward .50 cal. machine guns, 1-2 flex-mounted, rear-facing .30 cal. machine guns) the SBD proved surprisingly effective in dealing with Japanese fighters such as the A6M Zero. Some authors have even argued that the SBD finished the conflict with a plus score against enemy aircraft. The Dauntless last major action came in June 1944, at the Battle of Philippine Sea (June 19-20, 1944). Following the battle, most SBD squadrons were transitioned to the new SB2C Helldiver, though several US Marine Corps units continued to fly the Dauntless for the remainder of the war. Many SBD flight crews made the transition to the new SB2C Helldiver with great reluctance. Though bigger and faster than the SBD, the Helldiver was plagued by production and electrical problems that made it unpopular with its crews. Many reflected that they wanted to continue flying the Slow but Deadly Dauntless rather than the new Son of a Bitch 2nd Class Helldiver. The SBD was fully retired at the end of the war. A-24 Banshee in Army Service While the aircraft proved highly effective for the US Navy, it was less so for the US Army Air Forces. Though it saw combat over Bali, Java, and New Guinea during the early days of the war, it was not well received and squadrons suffered heavy casualties. Relegated to non-combat missions, the aircraft did not see action again until an improved version, the A-24B, entered service later in the war. The USAAFs complaints about the aircraft tended to cite its short range (by their standards) and slow speed.

On the Chesapeake Colonists Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

On the Chesapeake Colonists - Essay Example On the Chesapeake Colonists On an angle, this could be true, considering the English colonists were not as experienced as their Spanish counterparts. They were just beginning their conquest to the New World years after hearing about the success of the Spanish government in sending colonizers to the famed nation rich in gold. They are so ignorant they sent very few people on such an important mission who have been exposed to atrocities and calamities. They probably have not been prepared physically, emotionally and socially. Their inspiration for the trip was the famous stories of the successes of their Spanish brothers so that they probably were just driven by the thought that what their neighbor was able to do, they could also succeed in. They knew pretty well the possible harsh relations they can get from the earlier colonists of other American soils so they prepared themselves for attacks from them. However, they did not seem to have been well-prepared for the attack of the Indians who claimed the lives of a part of the company. In addition, the ills brought about by diseases rampant during that time that killed most of the small company shows how unprepared they are for what should have been expected and prepared for. Such circumstances are pointed out to show the ignorance of the English settlers. Coming from one of the most civilized nations during that time, the English colonists are well-informed about the latest technological discoveries, modern inventions that made life easier and other information that shaped the English civilization.